LOCAL GOVERNMENT,CHANGE AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Local governments in Nigeria are expected to play both political as well as a socioeconomic role. Change in relation to local government is navigating a path for local government to perform its socioeconomic role while using its political power to achieve this. A change in the external environment i.e. the political, social, or economic environment requires making appropriate changes in the activities of the organization. Local government faces these demands for change through individuals who make up its membership. Since local government change ultimately depends on the willingness of the people to change their attitudes and behaviors, deliberate and concerted efforts are necessary for bringing about such changes especially as it relates to conflict management security.
In this paper we shall be discussing the concept of change in relation to local government and conflict management, how local government go about providing change in conflict management security and the problems they encounter in doing these.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Change can be defined thus, “to become different, or make something or somebody different”. Change may either be positive or negative in character. Change simply means moving from the old to a new way of doing things. Change is in fact another word for development; development is change from the positive angle. Change is both necessary and inevitable, effective local governance attempt to strike a balance between maintaining the status quo and bring about or respond to change.
People will resist change on the following grounds;

• When the said change is perceived to be against their self-interest;
• When they misunderstand the dimension of such change;
• When they are not given the opportunity to be a part of the changing process;
• When previous attempts of change had been detrimental rather than beneficial to them;
• When they have low tolerance for change; and
• Fear of the unknown
• Such resistance can be minimized by either of the following methods;
• Education and effective communication;
• Participation and involvement of the people in the process of achieving change
• Facilitation and support
• Negotiation and agreement
• Manipulation and cooperation

The term conflict has been defined as “difference: a disagreement or clash between ideas, principles, or people”. Conflict can also be seen as a struggle over values or claims to status, power and scarce resources.Thus conflict may result in insecurity and loss of life and property.

Amongst other things, Conflict at the local level may be caused by any or all of the following;

Land dispute between individuals and or between communities; disputes over land occurs when there is a misunderstanding over ownership and economic use. This eventually leads to fighting and destruction of lives and property.

Dispute between cattle herdsmen and farmers; this arises when herds of cattle go into farms to eat up and destroy crops. Farmers reaction to such cases is usually retaliatory and offensive.

Religious misunderstanding; this occurs due to incompatibility amongst two or more religious groups and is known to be one of the major cause of crises in this country.

Political differences; this often arises as a result of power tussle between political juggernauts who go about inciting their supporters to use violent means to scare their opponents.

Location of projects; this is a situation where two or more communities are laying claim to the siting of a project. If not contained early enough, both communities may resort to a loose/loose mind set and the result will be a crisis situation.

Dispute over traditional titles and succession struggles;
Influx of strangers and immigrants looking for menial/farming jobs or land to farm.

Conflict management on the other hand refers to the interventionist efforts aimed at preventing the escalation and negative effects of conflicts especially violent ones and through this management a particular conflict could be reduced, downgraded and even contained.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT AS AN AGENT OF CHANGE AND
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Local government as we had earlier pointed out, have both political and socioeconomic role to play in its immediate environment. The political role will include democratization by popular participation, political education and socialization, maintenance of law and order, serve as training ground for future political leaders, as well as serve as a two way channel of communication between the people and other levels of government.

On the socioeconomic sphere, local government is expected to provide efficient services such as primary education, agriculture, infrastructural facilities, revenue generation and even job creation and so on.

It is in the process of living up to its roles that local governments act as an agent for change and conflict management, and this take place in three levels.

In the first level, Local Government makes use of the following;
The Use of Elected Representative; These people’s representatives feed their wards with information either to douse their fears about a particular issue or to elate them about a particular development. These representatives also agitate for the location of projects in their constituencies such that their people begin to feel a sense of belonging in the larger society. This helps in stemming down the possibility of a conflict and can bring about the much sought-after development--change.

The Use of Standing Committees; committees such as the Peace and Security Committee, and Police Community Relations Committee are used by local government to maintain law and order in society. For instance, the peace and security committee is composed of the police DPO, the military (if they have a presence in the locality), representatives of market women and men, representatives of the church and mosque and other stake holders in society. These committees meet and discuss peace and security matters such that before certain matters metamorphose into full blown conflict or crisis the appropriate authorities would have been alerted. This arrangement ensures that conflicts at the local level are kept at their lowest ebb.

The Use of Traditional Leaders; owing to the level of allegiance that exist between the people and their traditional institutions, local government often go through these institutions to bring about change. The traditional institution is used for social mobilization, conflict management, and development. The traditional institution have their traditional way of settling disputes amongst persons and the are also the custodians of local custom, thus they are highly revered by the people.

The second level is the use of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) to bring about change and foster development. These NGOs are specialized in specific areas of endeavor that could be employed in complimenting the efforts of the local government. The CBOs are used for local community works. There in two things are achieved. In the first place development of the area is achieved, while in the second place the energy of the youth is channeled towards positive things that are beneficial to the community.
The third and last level for bringing about change and containment of possible conflict is by the local government itself providing efficient services to the people evenly. Although resources requisite for these development tends to be scarce relative to needs, local government must seek to strategically situate projects such that all and sundry will benefit.

PROBLEMS FACED BY LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN PROVIDING CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Although local governments try as much as they can to live up to the above, their efforts are usually marred by the following;
Inadequate Capacity; this is concerning the quality of personnel in the helms of affairs in local government. The quality of manpower tends not to have the capacity to handle conflicts and bring about change. Some of the elected representatives are primary school leavers and they usually have poor communication skills. Some of them are known for flagrantly insulting some members of the public that they (members of the public) are poor. This kind of situation can only escalate rather than manage conflict.

Inadequate Autonomy; the issue of Local Government autonomy also affect its ability to carry out some or most of its roles. This problem is as a result of the fact that local governments, most of them, do not have enough resources to execute developmental projects that will bring about change. And as we all know, physical autonomy is somewhat tied to fiscal autonomy.

Uncooperative Attitudes of the People; this is as a result of inadequate resources, inadequate autonomy and lack of consultation and involvement by the local government officials. The local people do not have respect for their representatives because often times when the need arises for the local government machinery to respond to their wishes, local government usually do not have either the resources to do so or they lack the autonomy to respond, thereby resorting to the state government for virtually everything. Thus the people see little or no reason to cooperate with an ineffective institution. In fact the people’s attitude towards local government is rather passive and indifferent.

Politicization Of Projects; this is another serious problem in local government that result in conflicts. Instead of projects to be situated according to need and other concrete consideration, some persons, because of their influence, tend to concentrate virtually all projects in their own locality thereby causing dissensions among other groups. Within a short time if nothing is done to address such issues the aftermath is usually a conflict.

Religious Bigotry; in a case where members of the same local government are of different religious beliefs, the dominant religious group tend concentrate projects in their own part, neglecting others and creating a breeding ground for potential conflict.

Ineffective Communication; this come to bear when amidst brewing tension the local government official do little or nothing to calm the fears of the people by feeding them with adequate information about the state of things. Ineffective communication creates misunderstanding and misunderstanding is the foundation of conflicts.

CONCLUSION

Thus far as we have shown from the above discussion that the actions and inaction of local government can either help in managing conflicts or blow them out of proportion depending on the ability of the administrative machinery to carry the people along. Development is not possible in a chaotic environment, thus local government must seek ways to ensure a peaceful coexistence amongst its people so as to bring about the desired change. To do this local government must increase its commitment towards meeting the needs of the people by improving the quality of its manpower and strengthening its financial base. Developmental projects must also be evenly distributed so as make all feel a sense of belonging in the changing process.

PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL ENVORONMENTAL ISSUES OF SABON GARI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, KADUNA STATE; A Study of Muchia Disdtrict

Introduction

The environment provides mankind with general life support. Thus, all of man’s activities, be it economic, social or political, are carried out on the environment. It is in man’s quest to provide for his everyday needs that have spurred him to explore and exploit the environment thereby degrading the environment in the process. Thus, as man continue the degradation process, the environment in turn has its way of making sure that man does not go unharmed i.e., it places man under certain unfavorable circumstances. These circumstances usually come in the form of diseases, hunger and general hardship. Environmental degradation can contribute to social, economic and political instability, which can lead to untold hardship and security problems.

THE ACTIVITIES OF VIGILANTE GROUPS:A Study of Magume Community of Zaria Local Government Area

Introduction

In every society the world over, one of the cardinal functions of the state is to maintain law and order, and these are usually achieved through the myriad of security agencies and the legal system available. However, owing to the inability of the Nigerian state, and by extension Local Governments, to adequately perform these functions, inhabitants of urban centers nationwide have taken it upon themselves to provide such services.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN UGANDA

INTRODUCTION

The local government system in Uganda can be traced back to structures established by the British colonial powers from around 1900. These structures were in turn molded upon the chiefly system of authority in Central Uganda (The kingdom of Buganda model).

Primary Education in Nigeria

Introduction

Education has remained a social process in capacity building and maintenance of society for decades. It is a weapon for acquiring skills, relevant knowledge and habits for surviving in the changing world. Primary education is the foundation of every educated person’s sojourn into the academia. Since the rest of the educational system is built upon it, the primary level is the key to the success or failure of the whole educational system.

Public Primary education as a sub sector in the Nigerian educational system is suffering from a malady fast threatening to defy all manner of solution.
It shall be our business in this paper to examine the nature of primary schools in Nigeria, identify challenges being faced by the sub sector and thereafter suggest possible solutions to ameliorate the malady identified.

Theoretical background

Primary schools in Nigeria operate at the primary level of education, providing what may be called basic education. The federal, state and local governments have the constitutional responsibility for primary education but private sector, represented by individuals, communities, religious groups, and voluntary agencies are permitted to own and run primary schools. Private schools usually charge fees whilst public schools charge only a token amount in fees. Parents provide uniforms, text-books and other school materials in both private and public schools.

The management of primary education in Nigeria has been moving from one body to another. The federal government is the principal financier and controller of primary education. However, the reintroduction of the National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) through Decree No. 96 of 1993, along with the structure of State Primary Education Board (SPEB) and Local Government Education Authorities (LGEAs), make these bodies responsible for the management and fund allocation in the primary school sub-section. However the arrangement is made in such a way that no level of government is overburdened with the task of providing such service to members of the public. The federal government determines national policy, sets standards, and monitors performance. State governments are responsible for designing, developing, and delivering the service. Examples include designing the curriculum and preparing legislation.

In addition, local governments have a formal responsibility, dating from the Local Government Decree of 1976, for providing and maintaining primary education, subject to necessary assistance from the states (Federal Ministry of Education, Education Sector Status Report, Abuja, Nigeria, 2003).

Vaz (2004) stated that,” although financing primary education is a concurrent function of federal, state, and local governments, local governments bear the greatest financial responsibility. The local governments’ 20.6% share of the Federation Account results in two types of local funding for education. First, at the state level, a percentage of the local share (a “first charge”) is set aside for primary school teachers’ salaries and allowances. Local governments may then use a part of what remains for direct assistance to primary schools. They also contribute own-source revenues to primary education.”

Challenges Facing Primary Education System in Nigeria

According to the World Bank Group (1999) report on primary education, the following were identified as major challenges combating primary schools in Nigeria;

1. The school environment is not conducive to learning, pupil safety, security and health;

2. Classrooms space are inadequate, meaning that many children are either instructed in the open air or share classrooms with up to four other classes. As well as being insufficient in numbers, classrooms are generally in a poor state of repair;

3. There is little or no funding to meet maintenance or running costs, or to obtain supplies of instructional materials and other educational inputs. Schools lack offices, desks and other furniture, and recreational facilities, and have few or no toilet facilities;

4. Teacher effectiveness and student learning were found to be further limited by the inadequate supply of materials, frequent changes in recommended textbooks, the current textbook lending policy, and the late supply of record books;

5. Most teachers and head teachers were committed to their vocation. However, extremely low remuneration, poor working conditions, and inadequate facilities have inevitably eroded motivation and satisfaction;

6. Many teachers did not have the minimum qualification for primary school teaching; acute shortage of qualified teachers; recruitment of unqualified and untrained people into teaching and inadequate management staff;

7. In some areas, there were gender imbalances in staff cadres, reflected in the shortages of female teachers in much of the north of the country and of male teachers in parts of the south. Teaching was further disrupted by frequent and wholesale staff transfers. All of these factors have contributed to the declining prestige and status of teaching as a profession;

8. Regional imbalances in enrollments were found, with lower enrollment in the northern compared to southern zones, particularly with respect to female pupils. Attendance levels vary considerably between schools, and are often low in rural areas, especially during the farming season and on market days;

9. The transfer of management of the federal allocation for teachers' salaries and operational cost from LGAs to the NPEC and the State Primary Education Boards (SPEBs) had largely succeeded in ensuring that teachers’ salaries are paid. Nevertheless, the fact that Education Secretaries are responsible to SPEBs, rather than to the local councils which appoint them, has also often resulted in tensions between the LGA and SPEBs, conflicting pressures on the Education Secretaries, and a perception on the part of the local government that they are not meaningfully involved in the management of the schools and in the resources made available for their areas. SPEBs have also taken over a number of roles (e.g. for supplies and maintenance) originally envisaged as the responsibility of Local Government;

10. Little information is made available to the public regarding the budget and expenditure of Local Government Education Authorities ( LGEAs);

11. The supervision of primary schools is sometimes irregular and often inadequate;

12. Headmasters have no funds to respond to minor maintenance problems or to purchase supplies and incidentals; and

13. Many of the problems identified stem from the inadequacy of funding for primary education. Sufficient resources are still not being made available to local governments to build and maintain the necessary infrastructure, provide essential educational materials, or even to pay teachers a living wage;

Recommendations To The Identified Challenges

The World Bank Group in their paper highlighted probable solutions to the identified problems and for our own purpose we shall adopt same, and these are as follows;

•  Create a matching grant facility to support community-based and PTA initiatives on primary education;
• Involve PTAs more formally in school management;
•  Implement a pilot scheme for developing such new approaches to community involvement in primary education;
• Build capacity of PTAs and other CBOs and foster them where they do not exist;
• Salaries and benefits of teachers should be increased so as attract more professionals in the system;;
• Review teachers’ training programs;
• Provide in-service training opportunities;
• Improve design and appropriateness of distance learning courses;
• Develop incentive program to address gender imbalance;
•  Implement minimum posting guidelines;
• Provide LGEA with funds for construction, repairs and furnishing;
• Entrust headmaster/PTA with funds for minor repairs;
• Review current maintenance arrangements and conduct a maintenance needs assessment;
• Give LGEA responsibility for acquisition and distribution of instructional materials (excluding textbooks);
• Use recommended texts for at least four years;
• Develop options for the provision of textbooks through loan or purchase in consultation with parents;
• Flexible scheduling of school terms and attendance;
• Community mobilization to promote enrollment, attendance and retention through advocacy programs;
• Education secretaries to brief LG Council regularly on plans, expenditures and achievements;
• LG Councils to ensure LGEA accounts are properly audited;
• Information on LGEA budgets and expenditures should be made available to the general public;
• Create an imprest account under the control of headmasters, in consultation with PTA;
• Training and means of transport for supervisors;
• Increase in per capita enrollment allocation; and 
• Review and formalize cost-sharing arrangements among government agencies and other stakeholders

Conclusion

From the above, it can be deduce that the Nigerian primary school system is at the verge of a collapse unless bold and decisive steps are taken to salvage the situation. In fact most parents these days prefer to pay through their nose to have their wards in private primary schools. Even teachers of the public schools will not want to have their children in public schools.

There is the imperative for all and sundry to make concerted effort towards reversing the status quo. The task does not reside with any level of government alone; it is burden both the federal, state and local government as well as the private sector must shoulder if we must make any meaningful progress to save the system from imminent collapse. Suggestion such as the ones presented above will be a mighty leap forward.

References:
1. This brochure was compiled from a report titled Understanding Public Financing of Primary Education in Nigeria (July 15, 2004), by RTI International staff member Peter Vaz. The original report was a product of the policy component of the Literary Enhancement Assistance Project (LEAP), sponsored by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and headed by the Education Development Center (USAID Award No. 620-CA-00-01-0011-00). LEAP is being implemented in the states of Lagos, Nasarawa, and Kano.

2. Paul A. F., et al(1998), Hard Lessons: Primary Schools, Community and Social Capital in Nigeria, Technical Paper No. 420, October, World Bank, Washington, D.C.

3. Subrahmanian, R. ,(2002), “Citizenship and the Right to Education” in IDS Bulletin Vol. 33 No. 2

4. All emphasis and italics are mine.